Long before the Roman Empire expanded into the Iberian territories of what is now Spain and Portugal, the lands were inhabited by diverse groups with rich cultures and traditions. Some of the earliest evidence of human settlement dates back to the Paleolithic era over 1 million years ago. However, our understanding of the pre-Roman civilizations really takes shape in the later prehistoric periods.
The Iberians
One of the most widespread groups were the Iberians, who gave their name to the peninsula itself. The Iberian culture emerged around 800 BCE in the Mediterranean areas of what is now eastern and southeastern Spain. They were influenced by other Mediterranean groups like the Greeks and Phoenicians through trade and cultural exchange.
The Iberians left behind numerous archaeological sites and artifacts that reveal their sophisticated societies. Settlements like Bastida de les Alcusses and Ullastret show advanced town planning with stone-built houses, streets, and fortifications. Brilliant Iberian sculptures, ceramics, and metalwork demonstrate their artistic talents. The famous Lady of Elche bust from the 4th century BCE is one of the finest surviving examples.
The Iberians had their own writing system, though it remains un-deciphered by modern scholars. They minted coins and engaged in mining, agriculture, pottery-making and other crafts. Various Iberian tribes and city-states emerged, suggesting they had developed organized political structures. Religion played a major role, with evidence of practices like human sacrifice.
The Celts
Another hugely influential pre-Roman group were the Celts who spread across the peninsula from the north, likely arriving around 700 BCE. The Celtic culture intermingled with the Iberians in areas of central and western Spain and Portugal, creating a Celtiberian hybrid culture.
The Celts brought new practices and technologies like iron-working andMore advanced agriculture. They built impressive hill forts and fortified cities like Numantia and Segeda in central Spain. Evidence points to complex clan-based societies ruled by a wealthy elite class.
Like their Iberian counterparts, the Celts minted coins and developed written languages using scripts derived from the Phoenician alphabet. Their religious practices were polytheistic, worshipping nature deities and spirits. Remains of sanctuaries and artifacts reveal rituals like sacrifices and ceremonial burials.
Other Groups
In addition to the Iberians and Celts, the peninsula was inhabited by other distinct groups in the pre-Roman period. The Lusitanians were Celtic tribes who inhabited areas across Portugal and western Spain. The Aquitanians had a presence in areas of northern Spain.
Greek colonists founded cities like Roses on the eastern coast of Spain as far back as the 5th century BCE. The Phoenicians established settlements like Cadiz beginning in the 9th century BCE and helped facilitate maritime trade and exchange between cultures.
The collision of the diverse native cultures with these foreign maritime colonists brought new technologies, artistic influences, and belief systems to the peninsula. This cross-cultural pollination set the stage for the highly advanced Iberian societies encountered by the Romans centuries later.
The Roman Conquest
The Roman conquest and assimilation of the Iberian peninsula took place over around 200 years from the 3rd to 1st centuries BCE. It began with the Punic Wars against the Phoenician-founded city of Carthage and the subsequent defeat of the Carthaginian forces under Hannibal.
As the Romans advanced, they encountered fierce resistance from groups like the Iberians, Celtiberians, and Lusitanians. Leaders like Viriathus of the Lusitanians achieved some major victories against Roman forces before being assassinated in 139 BCE.
Despite the stubborn opposition, the regions fell one by one as the highly organized Roman war machine overpowered the decentralized Iberian groups. Key cities were founded like Italica and Emerita Augusta to cement control and spread Roman law, engineering, and culture.
By the end of the conquest in 19 BCE, most of the Iberian peninsula had become assimilated into the Roman provinces of Hispania. However, the legacy of the proud pre-Roman civilizations lives on through their advanced technology, art, mythology and in the modern cultures of Spain and Portugal today.
Quiz
Answer the following questions in 2-3 sentences each.
- What are the approximate dates for the emergence of Iberian culture in the Iberian Peninsula, and in what region did it emerge?
- Name two examples of sophisticated town planning from Iberian archaeological sites.
- What evidence exists to show the artistic talent of the Iberians?
- What are some key characteristics of Iberian society?
- What is Celtiberian culture?
- What new technologies did the Celts bring to the Iberian Peninsula?
- What kind of political structure did the Celts have in the Iberian Peninsula?
- Besides Iberians and Celts, name two other pre-Roman groups that inhabited the Iberian Peninsula.
- Name one way the Phoenicians influenced the Iberian Peninsula.
- How did the Romans consolidate their control over the Iberian Peninsula after the conquest?
Essay Questions
Consider these questions for deeper exploration.
- Compare and contrast the social structures, religious practices, and artistic achievements of the Iberians and the Celts in pre-Roman Iberia.
- Analyze the impact of maritime cultures (Greeks and Phoenicians) on the development of pre-Roman Iberian societies.
- Discuss the factors that contributed to the Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, focusing on the strengths and weaknesses of both the Roman forces and the Iberian groups.
- Evaluate the significance of archaeological evidence in understanding pre-Roman Iberian cultures, providing specific examples to support your arguments.
- How did the diverse native cultures of the Iberian Peninsula interact with foreign colonists and what impact did this cross-cultural exchange have on the societies of the time?
Glossary of Key Terms
- Iberians: A group of people who inhabited the Iberian Peninsula and gave the peninsula its name. They emerged around 800 BCE in what is now eastern and southeastern Spain.
- Celts: A group that migrated to the Iberian Peninsula from the north around 700 BCE, settling in central and western areas, bringing iron-working and advanced agriculture.
- Celtiberians: A hybrid culture that resulted from the intermingling of Celts and Iberians in the central and western Iberian Peninsula.
- Lusitanians: Celtic tribes who inhabited areas across Portugal and western Spain.
- Aquitanians: A group who had a presence in areas of northern Spain.
- Phoenicians: A maritime civilization that established settlements like Cadiz in the Iberian Peninsula and facilitated trade and cultural exchange.
- Punic Wars: A series of wars between Rome and Carthage (a Phoenician-founded city), which marked the beginning of Roman expansion into the Iberian Peninsula.
- Hispania: The Roman name for the Iberian Peninsula after its conquest and assimilation into the Roman Empire.
- Lady of Elche: A famous Iberian bust from the 4th century BCE, considered one of the finest surviving examples of Iberian art.
- Numantia: A Celtic fortified city in central Spain, known for its resistance against Roman conquest.
- Viriathus: Leader of the Lusitanians who achieved victories against Roman forces before being assassinated in 139 BCE.
- Italica: A city founded by the Romans in Hispania.
- Emerita Augusta: A city founded by the Romans in Hispania, now modern-day Mérida.
- Paleolithic Era: A period of prehistory dating back over one million years.
- Bastida de les Alcusses: A significant Iberian settlement showcasing advanced town planning with stone-built houses, streets, and fortifications.
- Ullastret: Another Iberian settlement that demonstrated sophisticated urban planning.
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